Complete Sociology Notes – Modern Sociologists (Berger, Inkeles & Giddens) & Key Theories for Master’s Degree (DU, GU, IGNOU, KKHSOU, IDOL, CDOE DU), UPSC Sociology Optional & NET/SLET.
Sociology Notes – Introduction to Sociology
(For Master’s Degree Courses, UPSC Sociology Optional, NET/SLET – Dibrugarh University, Gauhati University, IGNOU, IDOL, KKHSOU, CDOE DU & Other Universities)
Table of Contents
Modern Sociologists
🔹 2.1 Introduction
- Early sociologists laid the foundation of sociology, but modern sociologists like C.W. Mills, Peter Berger, Alex Inkeles, and Anthony Giddens made major contributions to contemporary sociology.
- Today, sociology is much more diverse, with many subfields and a global approach.
- Modern thinkers focus on how sociology helps us understand individuals, groups, and society.
- This chapter focuses on the views of four key modern sociologists. Here we study Mills and Berger.
🔹 2.2 C. Wright Mills (1916–1962)
👤 About Mills:
- An American sociologist who inspired many young thinkers.
- Combined ideas from Marx, Weber, and American philosophers.
- Wrote famous books like The Power Elite and White Collar.
🧠 Main Idea: Sociological Imagination
- Mills introduced the concept of sociological imagination.
- This means the ability to understand the link between personal experiences and larger social and historical forces.
🧩 Key Points:
- Helps us connect biography (individual life) and history (social context).
- Helps people see how their personal issues (like job loss) are actually part of bigger social problems (like economic downturn).
- Encourages asking deep questions like:
- What is the structure of society?
- How has it changed over time?
- What kind of people live in it, and why?
- What is the structure of society?
🔄 Change in Thinking:
- With sociological imagination, people see their life differently, feel more aware, and ask critical questions about society.
- It teaches us to look at problems from multiple angles — psychological, political, historical, and personal.
🔹 2.3 Peter Berger
👤 About Berger:
- A famous American sociologist.
- Wrote the popular book Invitation to Sociology (1963).
- Focused on the sociology of knowledge — how society shapes what we know and believe.
📚 Main Ideas:
- Sociology is a way of thinking — a special awareness that helps us understand society in a deeper way.
- It’s not only for helping people (like social work), but also for understanding how society works, whether used for good or bad purposes.
- Social experiences shape how people see the world — rich vs. poor, powerful vs. powerless.
👥 Focus on Groups:
- According to Berger, sociology mainly studies groups, not just individuals.
- It examines how people interact, how they influence each other, and how institutions like family, religion, and law shape behavior.
- Sociology shows how all human actions — from small acts (like shaking hands) to big ones (like war) — are influenced by social interaction.
📘 2.4 Alex Inkeles and His View on Sociology
🔹 Who is Alex Inkeles?
- A well-known sociologist and professor at Harvard University.
- Explained sociology in a very practical and modern way.
- He studied how sociology is defined and practiced, and what it should ideally focus on.
📌 Three Ways to Define Sociology (According to Inkeles)
- Historical Path
- Study of early sociologists like Comte, Spencer, Durkheim, and Weber.
- Question: “What did the founding fathers say about sociology?”
- Study of early sociologists like Comte, Spencer, Durkheim, and Weber.
- Empirical Path
- Study what today’s sociologists are doing in books, research, etc.
- Question: “What are modern sociologists actually working on?”
- Study what today’s sociologists are doing in books, research, etc.
- Analytical Path
- Use logic to define sociology’s subject clearly, and distinguish it from other disciplines.
- Question: “What does reason suggest?”
- Use logic to define sociology’s subject clearly, and distinguish it from other disciplines.
📚 What the Founding Fathers Said (Summary)
- Auguste Comte
- Divided sociology into:
- Social Statics: How institutions like family, economy work together.
- Social Dynamics: How societies change over time.
- Social Statics: How institutions like family, economy work together.
- Divided sociology into:
- Herbert Spencer
- Wrote “Principles of Sociology”.
- Suggested sociology should study:
- Family, politics, religion, work, communities, social control, knowledge, science, art, etc.
- Family, politics, religion, work, communities, social control, knowledge, science, art, etc.
- Believed sociology should look at how all parts of society relate and affect each other.
- Wrote “Principles of Sociology”.
- Emile Durkheim
- Called sociology the “science of societies”.
- Believed in studying:
- Social institutions and comparing different societies.
- Social institutions and comparing different societies.
- Focus on collective social behavior.
- Called sociology the “science of societies”.
- Max Weber
- Introduced the idea of “Verstehen” (interpretive understanding).
- Said sociology is about understanding “social actions” — behavior with meaning.
- Stressed neutrality and avoiding value judgments.
- Introduced the idea of “Verstehen” (interpretive understanding).
✅ Common Agreements Among the Founders:
- Sociology should study a wide range of institutions.
- It should focus on how these institutions are connected.
- Society as a whole is an important unit of study.
- Emphasis on social actions and social relationships.
2.4.2 What Sociologists Do Today
Inkeles says we can understand modern sociology by observing:
- Textbooks written by sociologists.
- The branches or fields they identify with (like family, education, gender).
- The research and conferences they are involved in.
But, what sociologists do now may not always match what they should be doing, according to Inkeles.
2.4.3 What Reason Suggests (Analytical View)
Inkeles argues that:
- Sociology should have a unique subject different from other fields like political science.
- Sociology must deal with social life, relationships, institutions, and social change.
🗂️ Inkeles’s Outline of Sociology Topics
- Sociological Analysis
- Human culture, society, scientific methods.
- Human culture, society, scientific methods.
- Units of Social Life
- Individuals, groups, communities, associations, population, etc.
- Individuals, groups, communities, associations, population, etc.
- Basic Social Institutions
- Family, economy, politics, religion, education, welfare, art, etc.
- Family, economy, politics, religion, education, welfare, art, etc.
- Key Social Processes
- Stratification (inequality), cooperation, conflict, communication, deviance, control, socialization, and change.
- Stratification (inequality), cooperation, conflict, communication, deviance, control, socialization, and change.
2.5 Anthony Giddens and Modern Sociology
🔹 Who is Anthony Giddens?
- A leading British sociologist.
- His work is divided into:
- First Phase (1970s–1980s): Created the Theory of Structuration.
- Second Phase (Post-1980s): Focused on studying modern global society.
- First Phase (1970s–1980s): Created the Theory of Structuration.
🌍 Giddens’s Key Questions:
- How did this world come to be?
- Why is life today so different from earlier generations?
- What will change in the future?
He believes we live in a world full of conflict, division, and rapid change (especially due to technology), and sociology helps us understand it.
🔭 Developing a Sociological Outlook (Giddens)
- To think sociologically means to imagine life beyond personal experience.
- Example: People in the past saw sex and marriage without the idea of romantic love — we must see their views too.
🧠 Sociological Imagination (by C. Wright Mills, supported by Giddens)
- Helps us step away from personal experiences and see the larger social picture.
- Example: Divorce is not just a personal issue but a social problem when many people face it.
2.6 Let Us Sum Up (Key Points)
- C. Wright Mills: Introduced Sociological Imagination — to connect personal life with society and history.
- Peter Berger: Sociology studies how human behavior is shaped by groups and interactions.
- Alex Inkeles: Sociology can be defined through:
- Historical (what old thinkers said)
- Empirical (what’s happening now)
- Analytical (what logic says)
- Historical (what old thinkers said)
- Anthony Giddens: Sociology studies our changing world and encourages thinking beyond ourselves.
2.7 Keywords (Simple Definitions)
| Term | Meaning |
| Imagination | Creating new ideas or images in the mind. |
| Image | Mental picture of something. |
| Motive | A reason why someone behaves a certain way. |
| Objectivism | Belief that reality exists independently of human thoughts. |
| Perspective | A way of looking at things. |
| Empirical | Based on actual experience or observation. |
| Self-Consciousness | Awareness of oneself and how others see us. |
| Social Dynamics | Study of how society and social processes change. |
| Sociology of Knowledge | Study of how knowledge is influenced by society. |
| Interaction | Mutual effect or influence between people or things. |
- Link to UPSC Sociology Optional Syllabus
📲 Stay Connected with Assam Board Exam
Get the latest Sociology notes, exam updates, and study tips for Master’s degree courses, UPSC Optional, and NET/SLET directly on your feed.
📲 Stay Connected
Get the latest updates and chapter releases via:
Modern Sociologists
📚 Why These Notes Are Important (Modern Sociologists)
✔ Useful for Master’s Degree Sociology (DU, GU, IGNOU, KKHSOU, IDOL, CDOE DU, and others)
✔ Perfect for UPSC Sociology Optional preparation
✔ Covers NET/SLET Sociology Syllabus
✔ Simple, exam-focused explanations
